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There are limitations to relying on the faculty to police academic dishonesty. One study found that up to 21% of professors have ignored at least one clear cut case of cheating.[69] Another study revealed that 40% of professors “never” report cheating, 54% “seldom” report cheating, and that a mere 6% act on all cases of academic misconduct that confront them.[70] A third survey of professors found that while 79% had observed cheating, only 9% had penalized the student.[71] According to a manual for professors on cheating,

the reasons for this lack of action include unwillingness to devote time and energy to the issue, reluctance to undergo an emotional confrontation, and fear of retaliation by the student, of losing students, of being accused of harassment or discrimination, and even of being sued for these offenses and/or defamation of character.[55]

There are other reasons as well. Some professors are reluctant to report violations to the appropriate authorities because they believe the punishment to be too harsh.

Some professors may have little incentive to reduce cheating in their classes below a point that would otherwise be obvious to outside observers, as they are rated by how many research papers they publish and research grants they win for the college, and not by how well they teach.

Others do not report academic misconduct because of postmodernist views on cheating. Postmodernism calls into question the very concepts of “authorship” and “originality.” From the perspective of cultural studies and historicism, authors themselves are simply constructs of their social surroundings, and thus they simply rewrite already written cultural stories. Moreover, in the field of composition studies, students are being encouraged more and more to do group work and participate in ongoing collective revision. The postmodernist view is that “the concept of intellectual malpractice is of limited epistemological value. Under the ironic gaze of postmodernism, the distinctions between guilt and innocence, integrity and deceit permeating the scandal debates appear irrelevant.”[73] One professor wrote in an article in The English Journal that when he peeked in on an unproctored class taking a test and saw several students up and consulting with one another, he decided that they were not cheating, but were using non-traditional techniques and collaborative learning to surmount the obstacles teachers had put in their way.[74] Issues of cultural relativism also affect professors’ views on cheating; the standard objection being that “students from certain Middle Eastern, Asian, and African cultures are baffled by the notion that one can ‘own’ ideas, since their cultures regard words and ideas as the property of all rather than as individual property.

Another issue teachers may have with deterring cheating is that they may decide that it is not their job. The argument that “they’re professors, not policemen” is often heard in academia. In economic terms, some professors believe they are being paid to provide learning, and if the student loses that learning through cheating, he is only cheating himself out of the money he paid.

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Academic dishonesty is endemic in all levels of education. In the United States, studies show that 20% of students started cheating in the first grade[5] Similarly, other studies reveal that currently in the U.S., 56% of middle school students and 70% of high school students have cheated.

Students are not the only ones to cheat in an academic setting. A study among North Carolina school teachers found that some 35 percent of respondents said they had witnessed their colleagues cheating in one form or another. The rise of high-stakes testing and the consequences of the results on the teacher is cited as a reason why a teacher might want to inflate the results of their students.

The first scholarly studies in the 1960s of academic dishonesty in higher education found that nationally in the U.S., somewhere between 50%-70% of college students had cheated at least once.[8] While nationally, these rates of cheating in the U.S. remain stable today, there are large disparities between different schools, depending on the size, selectivity, and anti-cheating policies of the school. Generally, the smaller and more selective the college, the less cheating occurs there. For instance, the number of students who have engaged in academic dishonesty at small elite liberal arts colleges can be as low as 15%-20%, while cheating at large public universities can be as high as 75%.  Moreover, researchers have found that students who attend a school with an honor code are less likely to cheat than students at schools with other ways of enforcing academic integrity.  As for graduate education, a recent study found that 56% of MBA students admitted cheating, along with 54% of graduate students in engineering, 48% in education, and 45% in law.

While research on academic dishonesty in other countries is minimal, anecdotal evidence suggests cheating could be even more common in countries like Japan
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In some developing countries, the number and seriousness of the problems faced are naturally greater. People in more remote or agrarian areas are sometimes unaware of the importance of education. However, many countries have an active Ministry of Education, and in many subjects, such as foreign language learning, the degree of education is actually much higher than in industrialized countries; for example, it is not at all uncommon for students in many developing countries to be reasonably fluent in multiple foreign languages, whereas this is much more of a rarity in the supposedly “more educated” countries where much of the population is in fact monolingual.

There is also economic pressure from those parents who prefer their children making money in the short term over any long-term benefits of education. Recent studies on child labor and poverty have suggested that when poor families reach a certain economic threshold where families are able to provide for their basic needs, parents return their children to school. This has been found to be true, once the threshold has been breached, even if the potential economic value of the children’s work has increased since their return to school.  Teachers are often paid less than other similar professions.

A lack of good universities, and a low acceptance rate for good universities, is evident in countries with a relatively high population density. In some countries, there are uniform, over structured, inflexible centralized programs from a central agency that regulates all aspects of education.

* Due to globalization, increased pressure on students in curricular activities
* Removal of a certain percentage of students for improvisation of academics (usually practised in schools, after 10th grade)

India is now developing technologies that will skip land based phone and internet lines. Instead, India launched EDUSAT, an education satellite that can reach more of the country at a greatly reduced cost. There is also an initiative started by a group out of MIT and supported by several major corporations to develop a $100 laptop. The laptops should be available by late 2006 or 2007. The laptops, sold at cost, will enable developing countries to give their children a digital education, and to close the digital divide across the world.

In Africa, NEPAD has launched an “e-school programme” to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years. Private groups, like The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, are working to give more individuals opportunities to receive education in developing countries through such programs as the Perpetual Education Fund. An International Development Agency project called nabuur.com, started with the support of American President Bill Clinton, uses the Internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development.

The assessment of career development is a relatively new concept. In general, ideas of appropriate methods for assessing student achievement and mastery of any set of competencies are shifting. Criterion-referenced tests, which measure performance relative to a specified set of standards or tasks, are gaining favor, for example, over norm referenced tests, which measure how an examinee performed in relation to others. At the same time, support for internal accountability, that is, determining what is worth knowing and assuring that students know it, is increasing. One response to this has been an increased use of portfolios that provide a medium for assessing student work and invite them to become responsible partners in documenting their learning. Through portfolios, students compose a portrait of themselves as able learners, selecting and presenting evidence that they have met the learning standards for individual classes and for broader learning tasks (Wolf, LeMahieu & Eresh, 1992). A student portfolio may be described as “a purposeful collection of student work that tells the story of the student’s efforts, progress, or achievement in a given area. This collection must include student participation in selection of portfolio content; the guidelines for selections; the criteria for judging merit; and evidence of student self-reflection” (Arter and Spandel, 1992, p.36).

As career development becomes an increasingly important component of educational systems, the issues of measurement and accountability are raised. This digest focuses on the use of portfolios in assessing career development.

Career Development Goals

In today’s workplace, employment security is becoming “employability security” (Kanter, 1991, p.9) — the knowledge that one has the competencies demanded in a global economy and the ability to expand and adjust those competencies as requirements change. The challenge of preparing our young people for this new workplace has generated legislative efforts to stimulate educational reform directed at creating “world class” education and a comprehensive system for helping American youth make a smooth transition from high school to productive, skilled employment and further learning. The Goals 2000: Educate America Act establishes eight national education goals and two national councils — one to stimulate the development of voluntary academic standards and the other to identify essential occupational skills. The School to Work Opportunities Act of 1994 is a strategy to implement the purpose of the Goals 2000: Educate America Act, that is, helping all Americans to reach internationally competitive standards through educational reform.

Career development is a major component of the School to Work Opportunities Act (STWOA). Career guidance and counseling, which are interventions in the career development process, are recognized as essential in helping students to choose their career (educational) pathway. Section 102 of the STWOA states that “The school-based component of a School-to Work Opportunities program shall include … career awareness and career exploration and counseling (beginning at the earliest possible age, but not later than the 7th grade) in order to help students who may be interested to identify, and select or reconsider, their interests, goals, and career majors, including those options that may not be traditional for their gender, race or ethnicity.” The Act also provides grants to states to plan for and implement school-to-work opportunities systems.

Renewed interest in career development has led to an equal demand for accountability. This prompts several questions. What do we want our students to know and be able to do as a result of a career development process and how will we know that they have achieved it? This legislation has placed the onus on school systems to provide the programs to help students make informed career decisions, and to provide opportunities for students to take responsibility for their career development. How will they know they have achieved these outcomes?

Two major endeavors can help schools to meet the double need of accountability and assessment. First, state and professional associations, as well as national leaders, practitioners, and career development experts, collaborated to develop the National Career Development Guidelines (NOICC, 1989). The National Career Development Guidelines offer a comprehensive, competency-based approach to career development that states, educational institutions and other organizations can use in developing effective career guidance programs. The Guidelines offer the processes, content and structure for such programs. More importantly, they provide the standards or competencies for career development at four different levels–elementary, middle/junior high, high school, and postsecondary/adult. The competencies fall within three areas of career development — self-knowledge, educational and occupational exploration, and career planning. The Guidelines, already being used in over 40 states as standards or as the basis for establishing career development standards, provide nationally validated competencies that can be used in assessment.

The second significant effort has been the work of the Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS). In the Commission report, What Work Requires of Schools (U. S. Department of Labor, 1991), five areas of competencies based on a three-part foundation are delineated. Of the 36 specific skills or qualities noted, over half are commonly included in a career guidance program. This report validates the integration of career guidance and counseling into educational programs and supplies a complementary set of standards by which a career development process can be measured.

Assessment Through Portfolios

The essential criteria for measuring the accountability of a career guidance program are available. Since self-assessment and reflection are important to developing personal responsibility in career decision-making, a portfolio that sets standards and also allows for reflection emerges as the instrument of choice. Until now, most efforts to document career development have been through career planners. Career planners are usually the end product of a career development process and, as such, are appropriate for secondary education or higher but not for the student at the awareness or exploratory stages. They also do not typically provide for the self-reflection essential to an individual’s ownership of the process.

Get A Life: Your Personal Planning Portfolio (ASCA, 1993), designed through collaboration between the American School Counselor Association and the National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, is one instrument that sets standards and allows for self-reflection. The portfolio is divided into four sections — self-knowledge, life roles, educational development, and career exploration and planning. Each section contains competency files and personal files. The National Career Development Guidelines for the middle and high school levels are used as competencies for both program and individual assessment. Program planners can analyze the comprehensiveness of their programs by evaluating their activities in relation to the expected student outcomes contained in the Guidelines. Individuals can determine if they have met the career development competencies through the programs offered. Within the competency file, a sign-off ascertains the strategies and the date on which each competency was addressed. In some schools, students make the decision whether, in fact, the activity or strategy presented did help them to master the competency. The personal files are a set of guiding questions that help students to reflect on their learning. The portfolio is an organizational tool that allows the owners to collect information about themselves to use in making personal, educational and career decisions. At the same time, the students are introduced to the idea that the process is lifelong, and that they must become “career negotiators” (Bailyn, 1992), taking responsibility for their own development.

Summary and Conclusion

Recent efforts to improve education have led to a new look at assessment. As pedagogy has changed to focus on learner-centered education, the need to make assessment an integral, on-going part of instruction has become obvious. Concurrently, Federal initiatives to promote educational reform have required the provision of career development opportunities and have demanded accountability in this area. The portfolio concept is one way to meet this challenge by giving students ownership of their work and standards by which they can be measured. States and local districts must define the career development standards they wish to implement, allow students the opportunity to take responsibility for their career development, offer the necessary career guidance and counseling to support student learning, and assess both the program and the individual to assure that the expected outcomes are being achieved. The portfolio provides the format for the process and documentation of career development while giving individuals and programs standards for assessment.

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Resume samples that fit a variety of employment situations. These sample resumes and templates provide job seekers with examples of resume formats that will work for almost every job seeker. Don’t just copy a resume format that you like. Instead, choose your resume very carefully. Revieyour strengths and achievements. Remember, your resume needs to impress the hiring manager enough so you get the interview. That means it needs to be perfect

Resume writing is a critical task. People are always confused about resuming writing. They don’t know what to write in resume and what not to write. Writing a great resume does not necessarily mean you should follow the rules you hear from others. It does not have to be just one page in length or follow a specific resume format. Every resume is a one-of-a-kind marketing communication. It should be appropriate to your situation and do exactly what you want it to do. To know more about resume writing, please checkout our resume writing guide and resume tips page.

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Do you know where your sensitive information is or more importantly who is responsible safeguarding it? In all likelihood your personal, sensitive information is sitting in various computer databases throughout the country in all types of organizations.

Hopefully your information is being guarded over by diligent and educated information security professionals whose mission in life is to ensure that this information does not fall into the wrong hands.

As you may have ascertained, the work that these men and women perform is critical to our economy, our businesses and our government.

Have you ever considered a career in information security? According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), those who work in information security will see rapid job growth and greater demand for skilled technicians at a 10 year projected growth rate of 16%. This of course will generate a greater demand for information security experts which will lead to increases in the expected earnings of those working within the field.

According to Payscale.com, the current median salary for a computer security specialist is $70,943.00 annually. Unlike many information technology jobs, outsourcing data integrity or information security work will likely remain ill advised due to the various laws, policies and limitations placed on those organizations whose business it is to have access to such sensitive information. As a result, job security is expected to remain strong.

Education and training will of course remain vital to this industry. Those who have attained the proper credentials will not only be in the highest demand but also are expected to see the highest paying jobs.

For those considering earning a degree in information security, the opportunities in online education have never been better.

If you are considering a degree in information security, try to begin with the end in mind. What level of degree do you wish to attain? An associate’s, bachelor’s or even a master’s degree?

An associate’s degree will likely impart a good amount of technical knowledge and allow for an entry level position to the graduate. Fortunately an associate’s degree can be acquired while working towards a bachelor’s degree.

A bachelor’s degree is generally considered the standard foundation from which a professional career is built and will of course open many more doors than what would be expected from a two year degree.

Finally a graduate degree would best serve those who already have a healthy amount of industry experience, for those seeking management positions or even for those who already have an unrelated undergraduate degree and that are looking at making a career change.

In addition to earning a degree, a student may also earn various vendor neutral certifications in information security such as the Certified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP) or the Systems Security Certified Practitioner (SSCP) offered by (ISC) which is largely regarded as a standard in the industry. The Security certification offered by CompTIA would also be a good credential to attain.

There are of course specific certifications which are designed to capitalize on technologies provided for by vendors, such as Symantec or Cisco Systems. Some degree programs may even require or at least provide training specific for these certifications which will look great on a resume next to a degree. So consider this in evaluating potential schools.

Information security is an up and coming profession holding a bright future for those working within the information technology industry. Due to the specialized skills and training required combined with the increased demand for these skilled professionals job opportunities are expected steadily grow.

For those potential students who would like to work with technology and computers, information security is one specialization that should be strongly considered due to the culmination of industry growthFeature Articles, job security and compensation.

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